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- The Sangam Age constitutes an important chapter in the history of South India. According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly called Muchchangam.
- These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.
- The first Sangam, held at Then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of this Sangam was available.
- The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam. The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran.
- It was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived.
- These Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history of the Sangam Age.
Sangam Literature
- The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics – Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
- Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature.
- It is a work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socio-economic conditions of the Sangam period.
- The Ettutogai or Eight Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppattu.
- The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
- Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valour). Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals.
- The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
- Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society.
Other Sources
- In addition to the Sangam literature, the Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mention the commercial contacts between the West and South India.
- The Asokan inscriptions mention the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the Mauryan empire.
- The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms.
- The excavations at Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places reveal the overseas commercial activities of the Tamils.
Period of Sangam Literature
- The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed topic among the scholars. The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries.
- This is confirmed by Silappathigaram as well as the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. Also the Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of the first century A.D were found in plenty in various places of Tamil Nadu.
- Therefore, the most probable date of the Sangam literature has been fixed between the third century B.C. to third century A.D. on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.
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Topics in Sangam literature | |
---|---|
Sangam literature | |
Akattiyam | Tholkāppiyam |
Eighteen Greater Texts | |
Eight Anthologies | |
Aiṅkurunūṟu | Akanāṉūṟu |
Puṟanāṉūṟu | Kalittokai |
Kuṟuntokai | Natṟiṇai |
Paripāṭal | Patiṟṟuppattu |
Ten Idylls | |
Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai | Kuṟiñcippāṭṭu |
Malaipaṭukaṭām | Maturaikkāñci |
Mullaippāṭṭu | Neṭunalvāṭai |
Paṭṭiṉappālai | Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai |
Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai | Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai |
Eighteen Lesser Texts | |
Nālaṭiyār | Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai |
Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu | Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu |
Kār Nāṟpatu | Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu |
Aintiṇai Aimpatu | Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu |
Aintinai Eḻupatu | Tiṉaimalai Nūṟṟu Aimpatu |
Tirukkuṛaḷ | Tirikaṭukam |
Ācārakkōvai | Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu |
Ciṟupañcamūlam | Mutumoḻikkānci |
Elāti | Kainnilai |
Related topics | |
Sangam | Sangam landscape |
Tamil history from Sangam literature | Ancient Tamil music |
edit |
The Tamil Sangams or Cankams were assemblies of Tamil scholars and poets that, according to traditional Tamil accounts, occurred in the remote past. Scholars believe that these assemblies were originally known as kooṭam or 'gathering,'[1][2][3] which was also a name for Madurai. Three assemblies are described. The legend has it that the first two were held in cities since 'taken by the sea', and the third was held in the present-day city of Madurai. The word sangam is used in the context of an 'academy' in several Tamil literary works, such as Tevaram, Thiruvilayadal puranam, periyapuranam and Irayanar Ahaporul. Also legend has it that Nammazwar's Thiruvaimozhi was approved in an assembly of 300 poets.[4]
The Sangam period extended from roughly 400 BC to 200 AD (early Chola period before the interregnum), when the earliest extant works of Tamil literature were written (also known as Sangam literature).[5][6] However, the name Sangam and the associated legends probably derive from a much later period.[7] Whilst the accounts of first two Sangams are generally rejected as ahistorical, some modern scholars, such as Kamil Zvelebil,[8] find a kernel of truth in them, suggesting that they may be based on one or more actual historical assemblies. Others reject the entire notion as not factual.[9] Nevertheless, legends of the Sangams played a significant role in inspiring political, social, and literary movements in Tamil Nadu in the early 20th century.
Sangam | Time span | No. of Poets | Kingdom[10] | Books[10] |
---|---|---|---|---|
First | 4440 years[10] | 549[10] | Pandiya | No books survived |
Second | 3700 years[10] | 1700[10] | Pandiya | Tolkāppiyam (author - Tolkāppiyar) |
Third | 1850 years[10] | Pandiya | covers entire corpus of Sangam Literature |
Sangam legends[edit]
Early literature from the pre-Pallava dynasty period does not contain any mention of the Sangam academies, although some early poems imply a connection between the city of Madurai, which later legends associate with the third Sangam, and Tamil literature and the cultivation of the language.[11] The earliest express references to the academies are found in the songs of Appar and Sampandar, Shaivite poets who lived in the 7th century.[12] The first full account of the legend is found in a commentary to the Iraiyanar Akapporul by Nakkīrar (c. seventh/eighth century BC).[13] Nakkīrar describes three 'Sangams' (caṅkam) spanning thousands of years.
The first Sangam (mutaṟcaṅkam)mudharchangam is described as having been held at 'the Madurai which was submerged by the sea', lasted a total of 4400 years, and had 549 members, which supposedly included some gods of the Hindu pantheon such as Siva, Kubera, Murugan and Agastya. A total of 4449 poets are described as having composed songs for this Sangam. There were 89 Pandiya kings starting from Kaysina valudi to Kadungon were decedents and rulers of that period.[14] The grammar followed in the first sangam was Agattiyam, developed by Agastya. The poems composed were Paripaadal, mudunarai, mudukurugu, kalariyavirai. If credence is given to the commentary of Irayanar Ahapporul, the beginning of sangam should be placed somewhere in 9000 B.C.[4]
The second Sangam (iṭaicaṅkam)idaichangam was convened in Kapatapuram. This Sangam lasted for 3700 years and had 59 members, with 3700 poets participating. There were 59 Pandiya kings starting from Vendercceliyan to Mudattirumaran were decedents and rulers of that period.[15] This city was also submerged in sea. Ramayana and Arthashastra of Kautalya corroborates the existence of a city named kavatapuram. There is a reference to a south Indian place called kavata by sugriva in a verse which runs something like 'having reached Kavata suitable for Pandiya'. The place kavata is also mentioned by Kautalya in Arthashastra. The grammar followed was budapuranam,agattiyam,tholkaapiyam,mapuranam and isainunukkam. The poems attributed to second academy are Kali,Kurugu,vendali and viyalamalai ahaval.[4] The third Sangam (kaṭaicaṅkam)kadaichangam was purportedly located in the current city of Madurai and lasted for 1850 years. There were 49 Pandiya kings starting from Mudattirumaran (who came away from Kabadapuram to present Madurai) to Ukkirapperu valudi were decedents and rulers of that period.[16] The academy had 49 members, and 449 poets are described as having participated in the Sangam.[17] The grammars followed were agattiyam and tholkappiyam. The poems composed were Kurunthogai,Netunthogai, kurunthogai nanooru, narrinai nanooru, purananooru, aingurunooru,padirrupaatu, kali,paripaadal,kuttu,vari,sirrisai and perisai.[4]
Late legends say that the third Sangam was held on the banks of the sacred Pond of Golden Lotuses in Madurai
There are a number of other isolated references to the legend of academies at Madurai scattered through Shaivite and Vaishnavite devotional literature throughout later literature.[18] The next substantive references to the legend of the academies, however, appear in two significantly later works, namely, the Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam of Perumpaṟṟapuliyūr Nambi, and the better-known work of the same title by Paranjothi Munivar.[19] These works describe a legend that deals mostly with the third Sangam at Madurai, and is so substantially different from that set out in Nakkirar's commentary that some authors such as Zvelebil speculate that it may be based on a different, and somewhat independent, tradition.[20]
In Nambi's account, the 49 members of the third Sangam led by Kapilar, Paraṇar and Nakkīrar were great devotees of Shiva, numbered amongst the 63 nayanars.[21] Nakkirar himself is said to have later headed the Sangam, and to have debated Shiva. The Sangam is described as having been held on the banks of the Pond of Golden Lotuses in the Meenakshi-Sundaresvarar Temple in Madurai.[22]
In contemporary versions of the legend, the cities where the first two Sangams were held are said to have been located on Kumari Kandam, a fabled lost continent, that lay to the South of mainland India, and which was described as the cradle of Tamil culture.
Kumari Kandam supposedly lay south of present-day Kanyakumari District and, according to these legends, was seized by the sea in a series of catastrophic floods.[23]
Historicity[edit]
According to P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar[24] who made research on this topic mentions in his book 'History of Tamils' Chapter XVI on topic 'Criticism of the legend',[25] as the years mentioned for the Three Tamil Sangams are too vast.
The First sangam lasted 4440 yrs and spanned 89 Succeeding Kings, The Second sangam lasted 3700 yrs and spanned 59 Succeeding Kings, The Third sangam lasted 1800 yrs and spanned 49 Succeeding Kings.
According to Kamil Zvelebil, the assemblies may have been founded and patronised by the Pandian kings and functioning in three different capitals consecutively till the last sangam was set up in Madurai. Zvelebil argues that the appearance of the tradition in literary and epigraphical sources means that it cannot be dismissed as pure fiction.[11] He suggests that the Sangam legends are based on a historical 'body of scholiasts and grammarians 'sits' as a norm-giving, critical college of literary experts, and shifts its seat according to the geopolitical conditions of the Pandiyan kingdom.'[26]
In AD 470, a Dravida Sangha was established in Madurai by a Jain named Vajranandi.[27] During that time the Tamil region was ruled by the Kalabhras dynasty. The Kalabhra rulers were followers of either Buddhism or Jainism. The Dravida Sangha took much interest in the Tamil language and literature.[27]George L. Hart suggests that later legends about Tamil Sangams may have been based on the Jaina assembly.[28]
Sangam literature[edit]
The earliest extant works of Tamil literature date back to the period between 400 BC and AD 200 and deal with love, war, governance, trade and bereavement.[29] The literature of this period has been referred to as The Sangam literature and the period in which these works were composed is referred to as the Sangam period, alluding to the legends.[5][6] Although the term Sangam literature is applied to the corpus of the earliest known Tamil literature, the name Sangam and the legend were probably from a much later period.[7]
An accurate chronological assessment of literary works has been rendered difficult due to lack of concrete scientific evidence to support conflicting claims. Undue reliance on the Sangam legends has thus culminated in controversial opinions or interpretations among scholars, confusion in the dates, names of authors, and doubts of even their existence in some cases. The earliest archaeological evidence connecting Madurai and the Sangams is the 10th century Cinnamanur inscription of the Pandyas.[30]
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^Devi, Leela (1986). History of Kerala. Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot. p. 73.
- ^Raghavan, Srinivasa (1974). Chronology of Ancient Bharat.
- ^Pillai, V.J. Tamby (1911). Dravidian kingdoms and list of Pandiyan coins. Asian Educational Services. p. 15.
- ^ abcdStudies in Tamil Literature and History, Vol 5, by Ramachandra Dikshitar
- ^ abKamil Veith Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, pp12
- ^ abSee K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, A History of South India, OUP (1955) pp 105
- ^ abAppar mentions the Sangam in his 'poem Tirupattur Tandakam. Referring to Siva, he says: 'Look at Him who was gracious enough to appear in the Sangam as a poet of fine poems' – K.V. Zvelebil, The Smile of Murugan, pp 46
- ^Zvelebil 1973a, pp. 126–127
- ^'The facts mentioned above have persuaded some scholars to consider that everything about the Sangam found in that commentary to be fabrication. But the more sober view of the matter seems to be to accept the main framework of the traditional account.. In this there can be no historical impossibility. The legendary and supernatural frills provided by that commentary can of course be rejected.' Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 2003, p. 32
- ^ abcdefgDaniélou, Alain (2003-02-11). A Brief History of India. Simon and Schuster. ISBN9781594777943.
- ^ abZvelebil 1974, p. 12
- ^Zvelebil 1973a, pp. 126–127.
- ^Zvelebil 1973b, p. 46
- ^P.T. Srinivasa-iyengar, 1929, p.230
- ^P.T. Srinivasa-iyengar, 1929, p.231
- ^P.T. Srinivasa-iyengar, 1929, p.231-232
- ^Zvelebil 1973b, p. 47
- ^Zvelebil 1973a, p. 127
- ^Marr 1985, pp. 8–9
- ^Zvelebil, 1973a & pp. 126-127.
- ^Nagaswamy 2004, p. 493
- ^Zvelebil 1974, pp. 183–184
- ^Ramaswamy 1999, p. 97
- ^P.T. Srivasa Iyengar
- ^P. T. Srivasa Iyengar, 1929, p. 232
- ^Zvelebil 1973a, pp. 133–134
- ^ abKamil V. Zvelebil: The Smile of Murugan p.48
- ^Hart, George, The Milieu of the Ancient Tamil Poems, University of California, Berkeley, archived from the original on 1997-07-09
- ^Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India - Abraham, Shinu Anna, Asian Perspectives - Volume 42, Number 2, Fall 2003, pp. 207-223 University of Hawaii Press
- ^An inscription of the early tenth century AD mentions the achievements of the early Pandya kings of establishing a Sangam in Madurai. See K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, A History of South India, OUP (1955) pp 105
References[edit]
- Basham, A. L. (1981), The Wonder That Was India (3rd ed.), Calcutta: Rupa
- Chopra, P.N.; Ravindran, T.K.; Subrahmanian, N. (2003), History Of South India - Ancient Medieval & Modern, New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Company, ISBN81-219-0153-7
- Krishnamurti, C.R (1998), Thamizh Literature Through the Ages: A socio-cultural perspective, Pondicherry: Radhika Publishers
- Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1975), A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar (4th ed.), New Delhi: Oxford University Press
- Marr, John Ralston (1985), The Eight Anthologies, Madras: Institute of Asian Studies
- Meenakshisundaran, T.P. (1965), History of Tamil Literature, Publications in linguistics - Annamalai University, Chidambaram: Annamalai University
- Nagaswamy, R. (2004), 'Sangam Poetic traditions under the Imperial Cholas', in Chevillard, Jean-Luc; Wilden, Eva (eds.), South-Indian Horizons: Felicitation Volume for François Gros on the occasion of his 70th birthday, Publications du Département d'Indologie - 94, Pondicherry: Institut Français de Pondichéry / École Française d'Extrême-Orient, pp. 487–494, ISBN2-85539-630-1, ISSN0073-8352
- Narasimhaiah, B. (1980), Neolithic and Megalithic Cultures in Tamil Nadu, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, ISBN81-7574-048-5
- Ramaswamy, Sumathi (1999), 'Catastrophic Cartographies: Mapping the Lost Continent of Lemuria', Representations, 67 (67): 92–129, doi:10.1525/rep.1999.67.1.01p0048w
- Ramaswamy, Sumathi (2004), The Lost Land of Lemuria: Fabulous Geographies, Catastrophic Histories, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN0-520-24440-0
- Zvelebil, Kamil (1973a), 'The Earliest Account of the Tamil Academies', Indo-Iranian Journal, 15 (2): 109–135, doi:10.1007/BF00157289
- Zvelebil, Kamil (1973b), The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India, Leiden: Brill, ISBN90-04-03591-5
- Zvelebil, Kamil (1974), Tamil Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Vol. X Fasc. 1, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, ISBN3-447-01582-9
- Srinivasa-iyengar, P.T. (1929), History of the Tamils: from the earliest times to 600 A.D., New Delhi: Asian Educational Service, ISBN81-206-0145-9
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tamil_Sangams&oldid=904132045'
Agastyar, Father and Chairman of first Tamil Sangams, Madurai, Pandyan dynasty.
The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், Sanga ilakkiyam) is the ancient Tamil literature of the period in the history of south India (known as the Thamizhagam or the Tamilagam) spanning from c. 300 BCE to 300 CE (Akananuru (1, 15, 31, 55, 61, 65, 91, 97, 101, 115, 127, 187, 197, 201, 211, 233, 251, 265, 281, 311, 325, 331, 347, 349, 359, 393, 281, 295), Kurunthogai (11), Natrinai (14, 75) are dated[by whom?] before 300 BCE).[1][2][3][4][5] This collection contains 2381 poems in Tamil composed by 473 poets, some 102 of whom remain anonymous.[6] Most of the available Sangam literature is from the Third Sangam,[7] this period is known as the Sangam period, which refers to the prevalent Sangam legends claiming literary academies lasting thousands of years, giving the name to the corpus of literature.[8][9][10] The only religious poems among the shorter poems occur in paripaatal. The rest of the corpus of Sangam literature deals with human relationship and emotions.[11]
The poems belonging to Sangam literature were composed by Tamil poets, both men and women, from various professions and classes of society. These poems were later collected into various anthologies, edited, and with colophons added by anthologists and annotators around 1000 AD. Sangam literature fell out of popular memory soon thereafter, until they were rediscovered in the 19th century by scholars such as Arumuga Navalar, C. W. Thamotharampillai and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer.
Topics in Sangam literature | |
---|---|
Sangam literature | |
Akattiyam | Tholkāppiyam |
Eighteen Greater Texts | |
Eight Anthologies | |
Aiṅkurunūṟu | Akanāṉūṟu |
Puṟanāṉūṟu | Kalittokai |
Kuṟuntokai | Natṟiṇai |
Paripāṭal | Patiṟṟuppattu |
Ten Idylls | |
Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai | Kuṟiñcippāṭṭu |
Malaipaṭukaṭām | Maturaikkāñci |
Mullaippāṭṭu | Neṭunalvāṭai |
Paṭṭiṉappālai | Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai |
Poruṇarāṟṟuppaṭai | Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai |
Eighteen Lesser Texts | |
Nālaṭiyār | Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai |
Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu | Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu |
Kār Nāṟpatu | Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu |
Aintiṇai Aimpatu | Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu |
Aintinai Eḻupatu | Tiṉaimalai Nūṟṟu Aimpatu |
Tirukkuṛaḷ | Tirikaṭukam |
Ācārakkōvai | Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu |
Ciṟupañcamūlam | Mutumoḻikkānci |
Elāti | Kainnilai |
Related topics | |
Sangam | Sangam landscape |
Tamil history from Sangam literature | Ancient Tamil music |
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Sangam literature deals with emotional and material topics such as love, war, governance, trade and bereavement.[12]Some of the greatest Tamil scholars, like Thiruvalluvar, who wrote on ethics, and on the various issues of life like virtue, wealth and love, or the Tamil poet Mamulanar, who explored historical incidents that happened in India, lived during the Sangam period.[13][14]
The Indologist Kamil Zvelebil quotes A. K. Ramanujan: 'In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius.'[15]
- 7References
Compilation of literature[edit]
Hong kong garden mp3. The available literature from this period was categorized and compiled in the 10th century into two categories based roughly on chronology. The categories are the patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku ('the eighteen greater text series') comprising the ettuthogai ('eight anthologies') and the pattuppāṭṭu ('ten idylls') and the patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku ('the eighteen lesser text series'). Descargar crack fl studio 12.5.1.
Classification[edit]
Sangam poems fall into two categories: the 'inner field' (akam – அகம்), and the 'outer field' (puṟam – புறம்) as described even in the first available Tamil grammar, the Tolkāppiyam.
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The 'inner field' topics refer to personal or human aspects, such as love and intimate relationships, and are dealt with metaphorically and abstractly. The 'outer field' topics discuss all other aspects of human experience such as heroism, courage, ethics, benevolence, philanthropy, social life, and customs.
The division into agam and puram is not rigid, but depends upon the interpretation used in a specific context.
Environmental classifications[edit]
Sangam literature illustrates the thematic classification scheme first described in the Tolkāppiyam. The classification ties the emotions involved in akam poetry to a specific landscape. These landscapes are called tiṇai (திணை). These are: kuṟiñci (குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions; mullai (முல்லை), forests; marutam (மருதம்), agricultural land; neytal (நெய்தல்) coastal regions; pālai (பாலை) deserts. In addition to the landscape based tiṇais, kaikkiLai and perunthinai are used for unsolicited love and unsuited love, respectively.
Similar tiṇais pertain to puram poems as well, though these categories are based on activity rather than landscape: vetchi, karanthai, vanchi, kanchi, uzhignai, nochchi, thumbai, vaagai, paataan, and pothuviyal.
Tamil Sangams[edit]
According to the compilers of the Sangam works such as Nakkeeran, the Tamil Sangams were academies, where Tamil poets and authors are said to have gathered periodically to publish their works. The legends claim that the Pandyan dynasty of the mythical cities of 'South Madurai', Kapatapuram, and Madurai, patronized the three Sangams.[citation needed]
While these claims of the Sangams and the description of sunken land masses Kumari Kandam have been dismissed as frivolous by historiographers,[16] 'Sangam literature' is still the preferred term for referring to the collection of Tamil works from the period 200 BC to 200 AD. Noted historians like Kamil Zvelebil have stressed that the use of 'Sangam literature' to describe this corpus of literature is a misnomer and Classical literature should be used instead.[17][needs update]
Sangam | Time span | Place of Organisation | Chairman | No. of Poets | Kingdom | Books |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
First | 4440 years[18] | Thenmadurai | Agastya | 549[18] | Pandiya | No books survived |
Second | 3700 years[18] | Kapatapuram | Earlier - Agastya Later - Tolkāppiyar (a disciple of Agastaya) | 1700[18] | Pandiya | Tolkāppiyam (author - Tolkāppiyar) |
Third | 1850 years[18] | Madurai | Nakkeerar | Pandiya | covers entire corpus of Sangam Literature |
Rediscovery[edit]
The works of Sangam literature were lost and forgotten for several centuries before they were brought to light by several Tamil scholars, such as Arumuka Navalar, C. W. Thamotharampillai and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer.[19][20] They painstakingly collected and catalogued numerous manuscripts in various stages of deterioration. Navalar and Pillai hailed from Jaffna. Navalar brought the first Sangam text into print; this was the Thirumurukaattuppadai (one of the Ten Idylls), in 1851. Pillai brought out the first of the Eight Anthologies (Ettuththokai) of the Sangam classics, the Kaliththokai, in 1887. Swaminathaiyar published his first print of the Ten Idylls in 1889. Together, these scholars printed and published Tholkappiyam, Nachinarkiniyar Urai (1895), Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai, (1868), Manimekalai (1898), Silappatikaram (1889), Pattuppāṭṭu (1889), and Purananuru (1894), all with scholarly commentaries. They published more than 100 works in all, including minor poems. J. V. Chellaiah of Jaffna College did the entire translation of the Ten Idylls in English in 1945.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^There are some who claim earlier dates (up to 600 BCE). Others cite as late as 2BCE. The date of 300 BCE may represent a middle-of-the road consensus view; e.g. see the well-received textbook Ancient India, Upinder Singh, 2009, p. 15. However, it is quite likely that the songs existed in oral tradition well before this date.
- ^Kamil Veith Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, p. 12
- ^K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, A History of South India, OUP (1955) p. 105
- ^Classical TamilArchived 7 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- ^T.S. Subramanian (10 July 2009). 'Jain History of Tamil Nadu vandalised'. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
The six Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions of the 2nd century B.C. on the brow of five caverns on the Kazhugumalai hill near Mankulam, 38 km from Madurai, are the most ancient ones in Tamil Nadu and establish the historical facts that the Pandyan king Nedunchezhiyan ruled in the 2nd century B.C. and that Sangam literature dates back to the same period.
- ^George L. Hart III, The Poems of Ancient Tamil, U of California P, 1975.
- ^Iḷaṅkōvaṭikaḷ (1 January 1965). Shilappadikaram: (The Ankle Bracelet). New Directions Publishing. ISBN9780811200011.
- ^Irayanaar Agapporul dated to c 750 AD first mentioned the Sangam legends. An inscription of the early tenth century AD mentions the achievements of the early Pandya kings of establishing a Sangam in Madurai. See K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, A History of South India, OUP (1955) p. 105
- ^'The latest limit of Ettutokai and Pattupattu may be placed around 700 AD..' – Vaiyapuri Pillai, History of Tamil language and literature p. 38.
- ^'..the Tamil language of these brief records achieved a flowering during the first centuries of the Common Era, culminating in the emergence of a poetic corpus of very high quality [..] To this corpus the name sangam poetry was added soon afterwards..' Burton Stein, A History of India (1998), Blackwell p. 90.
- ^See K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, OUP (1955) pp. 330–335
- ^Chera, Chola, Pandya: Using Archaeological Evidence to Identify the Tamil Kingdoms of Early Historic South India – Abraham, Shinu Anna, Asian Perspectives – Volume 42, Number 2, Fall 2003, pp. 207–223 University of Hawaii Press
- ^Morality and Ethics in Public Life by Ravindra Kumar p.92
- ^Essays on Indian Society by Raj Kumar p.71
- ^Kamil Zvelebil 1975, p. 115.
- ^The Hindu : Book Review : Resurrecting Lemuria
- ^Kamil Zvelebil., The Smile of Murugan
- ^ abcdeDaniélou, Alain (11 February 2003). A Brief History of India. Simon and Schuster. ISBN9781594777943.
- ^A library of palmyra manuscriptsArchived 13 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ^'Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature', Kamil V. Zvelebil
Bibliography[edit]
- Kamil Zvelebil (1973). The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. BRILL. ISBN90-04-03591-5.
- Kamil Zvelebil (1975). Tamil Literature. Handbook of Oriental Studies. BRILL. ISBN90-04-04190-7.
- P. Meenakshi Sundaram (1965). History of Tamil Literature. Annamalai University.
External links[edit]
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sangam_literature&oldid=900679901'
Madurai Tamil Sangam also known as 4th Tamil Sangam [1] was a languageacademy founded by PrincePaandi Thurai Thevar and other Tamil language scholars to promote the use of Tamil language and Tamil culture in the late 19th century in British held India.
It was modeled after the legendary Sangams of Maduraicity as mentioned in ancient Tamil literature. As there were three Tamil Sangams before, this one was considered to be the fourth one. It held exams to confer TamilPandithar degree on those who passed. Swami Vipulananda a noted Sri Lankan Tamil social reformer was one of the earlier Tamil Pandithars as recognized by the academy. It also published a scholarly journal called Centamil.
In the late 19th century, there was a great awakening of the Tamils and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, S. V. Damodaram Pillai, and others brought to light many of the ancient Tamil works which had hitherto remained in obscurity. Madurai Tamil Sangam is still functioning in the Tamil sangam road, Madurai.[2][3][4]The present president of Madurai Tamil Sangam is King of Mugavai. Mannar Na. Kumaran Sethupathi, vice president is Dr. N. sethuraman and secretary is S. Mariappa Murali.[5]
References[edit]
- ^http://maduraitamilsangam.com/
- ^Centamil:Journal of the Madurai Tamil Sangam JSTOR (English)
- ^Passions of tongue:language devotion By Sumathi Ramaswamy (English)
- ^An incomparable Tamil LexicographerArchived 2006-11-15 at the Wayback Machine Newstoday (English)
- ^http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/new-secretary-for-senthamizh-college/article6730127.ece
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madurai_Tamil_Sangam&oldid=890895259'